Christianity in China

Author: Na T. Herr
Written Spring 2005 Revised January 29, 2008

Introduction

In the last sixty years, Christianity in China has grown tremendously. This is amazing considering the harsh conditions during which it grew. The Communist regime under Mao Zedong put tremendous pressure on Christians to denounce their views and conform to the State. From 1949 to 1978, Chinese Christians became isolated from the rest of the world. Many analysts believed that Christianity had finally been snuffed out in China. However, when doors re-opened to China, outsiders were shocked to find a strong and resilient Church. Not only did Christianity survive, it grew.

In this paper, I will present a brief history of Christianity in China. Then, I will discuss the two “Churches” in China. The first is the official Church, governed by the TSPM. This Church is closely monitored by the government. The underground church, run by lay leaders, meet in private houses to escape government oppression. In this paper, I will explore how the two churches formed and why they are different. I will consider the social context from which the two churches emerged. Many factors shape Christianity as it developed in China. One major factor is the influence of the West, which has been both positive and negative. Lastly, I will take a look at the future of Christianity in China. Many scholars believe China has reached a point of post-denominationalism, where denominations do not matter any more. The study of Christianity in China is very exciting and moving.

Brief History of Christianity in China

Historically, Buddhism had more success than Christianity in converting the Chinese. The reason may be that Buddhism tolerated traditional Chinese beliefs more, particularly animism and ancestor worship (Fried 95). Christian missionaries encountered many problems, particularly relating to culture. Also, many missionaries were tied to political powers in the country where they were from (Fried 100). These factors contributed to a slower growth rate. Christianity in China actually began centuries before the first European ship arrived on China's coast. The Christian Nestorians were the first Christian group to come into contact with the Chinese. They trekked across the ancient Silk Road from the Middle East. They were active from 653 to 845, but faded out under intense religious oppression by the government. Today a Nestorian tablet containing Syrian and Chinese writings sits on display in Xi’an.

In 1280, Catholic missionaries from the Franciscan order appeared in the Mongol court in present day Beijing (Chao 17). Again, Christianity did not grow significantly. In 1552, European ships sailed into Chinese harbors. The Jesuits were especially prominent at this time, and they brought a sophisticated group of missionaries into the Chinese court (Chao 18). Two Jesuits, Francis Xavier and Matteo Ricci, made some significant gains. Ricci was especially known for his adaptation to local practices. There was conflict when conservatives in the Catholic Church spoke out against ancestor worship. This was known as the “Rites Controversy” (Chao 18). These conflicts eventually led to a rupture between Chinese Catholics and the Vatican (Fried 98).

Protestants entered China around the beginning of the 19th century. Hudson Taylor was the most prominent. He adapted to Chinese culture and employed a three-fold methodology to missions: medical, educational, and evangelistic (Chao 20). After the Opium Wars when China became more open to the West, Taylor started the China Inland Mission. Today, this organization is called Oversea Missions Fellowship. The China Inland Mission reached out to Chinese in the interior who had not heard of Christ (Chao 20). In the late 19th century, another Protestant, Samuel Pollard, began preaching to minorities in southwest China. They quickly embraced his teachings, because it provided an alternative to Han oppression (Tapp 10). Oppressed minorities were usually at the forefront of Christian revivals in China (Tapp 12). Perhaps the most significant event of the 19th century is the Taiping rebellion, which was heavily influenced by Christianity (Fried 101). This tragic event increased tensions and mistrust between Chinese Christians and other Chinese.

The Communist regime took over China in 1949 under Mao Zedong. Though Mao claimed to have liberated China, true liberation did not come for many years (Wilson 7). Mao’s Great Leap Forward, sometimes referred to as the Chinese Holocaust, caused millions of Chinese to die (Lawrence 31). To control the Church, the Communist party enacted the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (commonly known as the TSPM) in 1954. This was basically the political arm for Protestant Chinese (Chao 24). The goal of the TSPM was for the Chinese Church to be self-supporting, self-governing, and self-propagating (Lee 59). Basically, it was supposed to segregate Chinese Christians from the West. Communist China was clearly antagonistic against the West. Many factors contributed to this attitude. First were the Opium Wars and the resultant “unequal treaties” which were balanced in favor of Western powers. At the end of the 19th century, a Chinese uprising called the Boxer Rebellion left over 200 missionaries and 2000 Chinese Christians dead (Wilson 13). During the Chinese Revolution of 1912, many young intellectuals emerged against religion. They rejected religion and regarded it as superstition (Chao 22). Furthermore, Christianity was seen as the cultural arm of Western imperialism. As a result, in the 1920s, many movements were started to oppress Christians (Chao 22). The final blow came in 1949 when all foreign missionaries were expelled from China. The future seemed uncertain for Chinese Christians.

Three-Self Patriotic Movement

Now I will discuss the official Church in China, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement or TSPM. The number one aim of the TSPM was to separate Chinese Christianity from the West (Lawrence 102). It vigorously promoted self-hood, which it did achieve. The Church emerged independent of Western influences in 1978 (Lee 64). In the early 1950s, the TSPM started a chain of state-recognized churches. Pastors were sent to re-education camps; many became laborers (Chao 25). Churches closed down as Christians were scattered into different work units for the state. During this time, house churches started forming. The government, afraid that the house churches might grow and rebel, strongly persecuted them.

In general, Communist religious policy formed out of four principles (Chao 34). First, in China, the state traditionally controlled religion. Unlike the West, Chinese did not have such a clear distinction between state and religion; the two were closely aligned. Second, the new culture movement that emerged after 1912 was strongly anti-religion. This led to the creation of the Chinese atheistic state. Third, following Communist doctrines, the Chinese government embraced Lenin’s anti-imperialist attitude against religion. In other words, religion was seen as an opiate that subjugated people to imperial forces and should be eliminated. Fourth, Mao Zedong believed that all ideas needed to conform to his. In 1978, religious freedom was guaranteed in the amended Constitution. However, it stated that religious activities had to be “normal” (Chao 36). Underground churches were considered abnormal, and therefore, were oppressed or pressured to join the TSPM (Chao 38).

Theologically, the TSPM was more liberal than the underground churches (Lawrence 98). It de-emphasized the eschatological return of Jesus and discouraged evangelism. In fact, regulations existed that dictated when and where Christianity can be practiced. The TSPM wanted the Church to stay unified. This kept the Chinese Church from denominationalism. Chinese scholar Carl Lawrence writes that “the TSPM does provide a barrier against misguided Western Christians with more zeal than knowledge. God has broken down many denominational barriers in China over the last thirty years, and it would be tragic if Western missions were to resurrect them” (112). Unfortunately, the TSPM also joined in the persecution of underground churches, though this is not always the case. It was not a “monolithic” group (Chao 41). Many TSPM members did a lot of good Kingdom work. They were motivated by their love for both their country along with the church (Lee 62). For most Chinese in the TSPM, unity was their primary concern (Lee 66).

Underground Church

Ever since the Communist took over in 1949, Chinese Christians had to face persecution. They were forced to deny their beliefs. Many were beaten and sent to prisons. In 1958, the underground churches started emerging as an alternative to government-regulated TSPM churches (Chao 28). The TSPM actually attacked the house churches in 1958 and 1963 (Lawrence 35). As their leaders and pastors were sent to prison and work camps, many lay leaders rose up to provide direction. The believers gathered their resources together and helped each other to survive. The underground church in China resembled the Jerusalem church in the first century (Lawrence 54). Because the TSPM controlled printing of Christian literature, the underground church smuggled in their own (Lawrence 65). The government beat and tortured Christians who were caught with smuggled Bibles. However, some government officials did not persecute Christians, because they were good workers. “The Christians, being ‘good hard workers’ made the [local officials] successful. It is a chain of events that they do not want to break” (Lawrence 83).

For the most part, activities in the underground church revolved around the Bible and Christian radio broadcasts (Lawrence 90). They looked to external aid to help them survive. Carl Lawrence made four conclusions about the underground church. One, it demonstrated the power of prayer. Believers in the underground church had few things to rely on. Prayer became their greatest resource. Two, these Christians became very good witnesses for Jesus. Their hardships increased their resolve. Three, being underground, this church became de-institutionalized. It was able to avoid all the politics that came with institutions. Four, the underground church became a very caring and sharing community. This better reflected the New Testament church than some Western churches today.

Conclusion

A new China emerged in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. He declared that “to be rich is glorious” (Wilson 27). For this reason, he started a process that opened up China to the West. A free market economy emerged that radically changed the landscape. As mentioned earlier, religious freedom was guaranteed in the amended Constitution (Tapp 10). Unfortunately, with the new freedom also came the corruptions of freedom: pornography, prostitution, and gambling (Wilson 24). On a positive note, China’s new “open door” policy allowed foreign Christian organizations, particularly mission agencies, to become more active in China. In addition, educated foreigners were allowed in China for specific duties such as teaching English. Today, many Christians evangelize in China as skilled professionals.

Christianity is more important than ever in this new China. It is a spiritual anchor against soul-less materialism (Wilson 83). It offers peace and joy not found in material belongings and social status. Furthermore, Christianity in China is post-denominational. Because of Communist China's closed door policy prior to 1978, Christianity in China was not influenced by denominational Christianity in the West. Imagine the strength of the Christian Church if it is not divided by denominational doctrines! Current statistics in China show that Christians make up 3-4% of the overall population (about 50-60 million people). Some scholars believe China’s Christian population is growing at a very fast rate, such that China may one day become a “Christian” nation. Other scholars are more skeptical. Some predict that Christianity will wane, just like it did centuries before in China (Fried 105). It will be exciting to see how Christianity develops in the new China.

Works Cited

Chao, Jonathan, ed. China Mission Handbook. Hong Kong: Chinese Church Research Center, 1989.

Fried, Morton H. “Reflections on Christianity in China.” American Ethnologist 14.1 (1987): 94-106. JSTOR. Bethel University Library, MN. 28 April 2005

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